Time Loop Universe

Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. Genesis 1.3

The Big Bang

While one theory posits that the universe expanded from a compressed state everywhere at once, and is possibly infinitely large; the prevailing view in cosmology is still that the universe started from a hot, dense, and incredibly small state—essentially a "singularity"—and expanded outward over time.

We can measure the rate at which galaxies are moving away from us by analyzing the redshift in their spectra. The farther a galaxy is from us, the more it is red shifted. At a rate defined by the Hubble constant, the universe is expanding, in fact, it appears the expansion is accelerating, driven by a mysterious dark energy. Here is what we expect to see by looking back at light emitted up to 13.8 billion years ago:

When we observe light from the most distant objects, we’re seeing it as it was up to 13.7 billion years ago—nearly the age of the universe. (Due to the expansion of space, however, the sources of this ancient light are now located about 45 billion light-years away). Beyond the last visible galaxies, we see only the cosmic microwave background (CMB)

The CMB consists of faint microwaves emitted roughly 380,000 years after the Big Bang, when the universe is said to have just cooled enough for light to travel freely. Initially unexpected is that the CMB is a uniform temperature in every direction. The boundary of what we can observe is called the cosmic event horizon, as regions beyond it are receding faster than the speed of light. Light from these regions can never reach us due to the ongoing expansion of space.

There now appear; however, to be more visible galaxies in the early Universe than we expect, and they are brighter than many imagined.

Hundreds of what are now labeled “Red stars” have been found, dating only from 300 million to 1 billion years after the birth of our Universe. 

The majority are said to display clear signs of black holes at their centers, yet they don’t read exactly as black holes should, showing no x-ray emission. Thus far it is speculated that they are either collections of 100 billion stars, so massively compact that they mimic a black hole, or that they are primordial supper massive black holes. (1).

Perhaps they are similar to our much nearer galaxy: M23. The center of the accretion disc surrounding the M87 black hole is blasting out a jet of particles out at over 99% the speed of light extending some 6000 light years out. The M23 galaxy contains 13,000 to 15,000 globular star clusters. Actual photographs/radiographs:

Distant Quasars show a similar phenomenon. “Supermassive Black Holes at the center of these titanic Quasars, the first formed at the cosmic dawn, may have reached their extraordinary mass through very rapid and intense accretion.”(2)

The Dark Big Bang

A fifteen year study of gravitational waves concludes: “inferred gravitational-wave background amplitude and spectrum are consistent with astrophysical expectations for a signal from a population of supermassive black hole binaries, although more exotic cosmological and astrophysical sources cannot be excluded.” (3)

Such findings have been used to suggest a Dark Big Bang (DBB) hypothesis of early dark matter formation to have occurred shortly after the Big Bang, (4, 5). 

This is an alternative theory to hypothesis that the early universe was dominated by either weak force particles (the WIMP Hypothesis), or Super Symmetry particles, as neither have yet been detected.

These massive black holes should not have had time to grow (6). Present BH formation is thought to require a supernova to initiate the collapse, something which would not have time to occur in the early universe. So how did these BH come to exist so quickly?

While Avishai Dekel et al (2024) suggest it was the availability of feedback-free starbursts at the cosmic dawn led to very fast BH formation. (7)

Casey 2024 suggest that “ Primordial black holes (PBHs) can form in the early Universe before star formation out of the collapse of enhanced cosmological perturbations on small scales… they can account for a part or the totality of the dark matter densityIt does make since for black holes to form while matter was so dense, without it already necessarily have already formed stars for material.

Black Holes and White Holes

A black hole (BH) forms when a region of space has enough mass-energy density to overcome all other forces, resulting in the creation of an event horizon, a boundary beyond which nothing—not even light—can escape. In 1916, Karl Schwarzschild applied Einstein’s equations of General Relativity to spherical masses and calculated the Schwarzschild radius, the critical distance from a mass where the escape velocity equals the speed of light. The event horizon marks this radius, beyond which all matter and energy are irreversibly trapped by the black hole's immense gravity. At the core of the back hole lies the BH singularity, a point of infinite density where the known laws of physics break down. Black Holes unquestionably are now proven to exist, and may lie at the heart of every galaxy. This is a Kruskal diagram assigning coordinates to the Schwarzschild black hole:

A White Hole (WH) is created by the same math that proves the existence of a Black Hole. While some consider a WH to only be a theoretical object that may not exist; consider that in Quantum Physics, everything that is not forbidden to exist: does exist (just with decreasing probability).

Some theories suggest that parallel universe region III is an Einstein-Rosen (ER) bridge wormhole.

ER (Einstein-Rosen Bridge) equals EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Entangled Pairs)

In quantum mechanics, entanglement describes nonlocal correlations between particles. Entangled objects (EPR) are those that were once part of the same system and, after separation, remain interconnected in such a way that the state of one instantly influences the state of the other, regardless of the distance between them.

An Einstein-Rosen bridge (ER), is a wormhole, a theoretical bridge in space time between two points created by gravity assisted curvature inside a black hole. ER=EPR then suggests that these two descriptions are fundamentally connected: wormholes (ER) are a spacetime manifestation of entanglement (EPR).

Any pair of entangled black holes will be connected by some kind of Einstein-Rosen bridge. Two separated black holes can become entangled if they merge with black holes that are entangled (8). 

The conjecture provides a possible explanation for the black hole information paradox—what happens to information when it falls into a black hole. If two black holes are entangled, they could be connected by a wormhole. This wormhole might provide a mechanism through which information is preserved, hinting that entangled black holes could share information in a way that solves the paradox.

Maldacena and Susskind proposed that if two particles are entangled, they might actually be connected by a tiny wormhole, or Einstein-Rosen bridge.

There is growing acceptance of a theory that space-time is stitched together by entangled matter (EPR) and antimatter popping in and out of existence, tied together by tiny Einstein-Rosen bridge wormholes (ER). If this entanglement is mathematically cut, space comes apart. Entire regions of space could be stitched together by these wormholes (Brian Greene to Neil deGrasse Tyson (Startalk 2023)).

In general relativity, gravity is the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy. If ER=EPR is correct, then entanglement creates spacetime connections. This suggests that gravity, which is the warping of spacetime, could emerge from quantum entanglement. The ER=EPR conjecture offers a path toward unifying quantum mechanics and general relativity.

Wormholes

A wormhole is essentially a curved spacetime geometry, where gravity curves spacetime to the point where space has curved back upon itself. The Einstein-Rosen Bridge is a wormhole, suggested for both quantum particles, and massive black holes, the ultimate manifestation of gravity.

There is much debate as to whether or not a wormhole could be held open long enough for a time traveler to pass through before collapse. Kip Thorn speculates that a future time traveler could allow a wormhole bridge to be held open by a large amount of exotic matter (a form of matter with negative energy density), or possibly by controlling vacuum matter such as created using the Casmir effect. 

Other studies propose that a rotating, electrically charged worm hole may stay open on its own.

In spite of fast wormhole closures, a small amount of matter could theoretically pass through a wormhole before collapse. For example, in a Planck-scale wormhole (a Planck is the smallest unit in quantum mechanics that makes usable sense), the throughput could still allow a few Planck masses per Planck time (∼10−8 kg/s assuming no collapse). Perhaps billions of small, fast wormholes could pass a significant amount of matter. Larger wormholes could accommodate significantly more mass; however, their stability might depend on negative energy density.

In some solutions to Einstein's equations, black holes could be connected to "white holes" through wormholes. Some speculative models suggest that our universe could be on the "other side" of a wormhole, meaning it could have originated from inside a black hole.

No time travel allowed?

Stephen Hawking’s Chronology Protection Conjecture primarily addresses the challenges and limitations of time travel, asserting that the laws of physics prevent any changes to history. He suggests that particles or antiparticles moving repeatedly in a closed loop could create energy densities so extreme that they induce a positive spacetime curvature, effectively "pinching off" a wormhole or bridge, thus preventing time travel. Kip Thorne countered some of Hawking’s objections and suggested that consistent histories could resolve potential paradoxes, allowing time travel without violating causality. 

In spite of his objections, In Hawking's 1992 paper, he opened: "To time travel… you just have to travel from A to B faster than light would normally take. You then travel back, again faster than light, but in a different Lorentz frame."

Kruskal-Penrose Black Hole

In the study “Einstein-Rosen Bridge Revisited and Lightlike Thin-Shell Wormholes” Michail Stoilov et al use modified Kruskal-Penrose coordinates, ones they say are the original ER Bridge, resulting in a model where the spacetime connects two separate regions corresponding to two "universes"  which replace the right-hand region 1 and left-hand region 3 of the Schwarzschild Kruskal diagram.

Region III (now region II) is reinterpreted as a time-reversed wormhole connecting the past and future horizons, with the black and white hole regions effectively eliminated. The Authors claim: “This approach simplifies the Einstein-Rosen bridge's structure and shifts its interpretation toward a lightlike wormhole model without requiring exotic matter.” The paper demonstrates that the Einstein-Rosen bridge can become a mathematically valid causal link between two horizons without collapsing. The authors conclude: “Existence of CTC’s (also called “time machines”) turns out to be quite typical phenomenon in wormhole physics” (9).

A Reissner-Nordström black hole is a solution to Einstein’s field equations of general relativity that describes a charged, non-rotating black hole. It generalizes the Schwarzschild black hole by incorporating electric charge, and is a solution to the Einstein-Maxwell equations (which include both gravity and electromagnetism). Unlike a Schwarzschild black hole, which has a single event horizon, a Reissner-Nordström black hole generally has two horizons: the Outer Event Horizon, located at the Schwarzschild event horizon and an inner Cauchy Horizon. 

Easaon and Brandonburger (2022) offer geodesic equations for a daughter universe being born from a black hole. They find their solution “solve the horizon, flatness, and the structure formation problems naturally, not necessarily requiring a long period of cosmological inflation.” They also state, “We showed that this scenario does not suffer from the black hole information loss problem since pure states evolve to pure states and information is transferred from the parent universe to the black hole interior universe.”

Kerr Black Hole

A Kerr black hole is a rotating black hole solution in general relativity. The singularity of a Kerr black hole is not a point but a ring. Inside the event horizon, the equations suggest the possibility of traversing through the singularity and emerging elsewhere in spacetime. The inner structure of a Kerr black hole, particularly near the ring singularity, contains regions where spacetime paths loop back on themselves, forming closed timelike curves. These could theoretically connect a point in spacetime to itself, forming a "wormhole-like" loop. The ergosphere is the region outside the Kerr black hole's event horizon where spacetime is dragged in the direction of the black hole's spin. Light thus can be dragged faster than the speed of light. 

Black Hole Cosmological Coupling

Dark Energy, a term applied because we can’t see it (and don’t know what it is), is thought to be responsible for the accelerated expansion of the universe. Its exact nature is unknown but is often associated with either the cosmological constant or, in quantum physics, a dynamic vacuum field.

Recent studies based on data collected by DESI, the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument, suggest that the conversion of stellar mass into vacuum energy by black holes may be a significant source of dark energy (Farrah et al.; Croker et al.)(13, 14). They conclude that as the universe expands, the energy density associated with the black holes increases in a way that mimics the behavior of dark energy. This cosmological coupling posits that black holes are not isolated but interact dynamically with the expanding universe.

As summarized by UK News: “The new result shows that black holes gain mass in a way consistent with them containing vacuum energy, providing a source of dark energy and removing the need for singularities to form at their center. Measurements of galaxy populations at different epochs of the universe’s evolution align well with the relationship between the size of the universe and black hole masses…These studies indicate that cosmological coupling may explain dark energy. “The measured amount of dark energy in the universe can be accounted for by black hole vacuum energy,” the researchers noted. (Imperial College London).

And by the University of Michigan: Data from tens of millions of distant galaxies measured by DESI reveal evidence that the density of dark energy increased in proportion to the mass absorbed by black holes. “The two phenomena were consistent with each other — as new black holes were formed in the deaths of massive stars, the amount of dark energy in the universe increased in the right way,” according to researchers… This mechanism suggests that during gravitational collapse, matter from massive stars might transform into dark energy, akin to a little Big Bang played in reverse”.

Exactly how does this energy/dark matter/cosmological constant that drives the expansion of the Universe get out of the black hole I wonder? Somehow “the increase is due to a coupling mechanism where the black holes' mass-energy feeds into the overall energy density of spacetime.” Perhaps cosmological coupling is another form of entanglement! ER=EPR! ER (Einstein-Rosen Bridge) equals EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Entangled Pairs)! In the same way that space-time may stitched together by entangled matter.

Or, perhaps another very theoretical unproven object is in order. White holes are believed to be unstable due to interactions with surrounding spacetime. This instability could lead to a rapid release of energy before the white hole dissipates. In the bounce-back model, a collapsing star might theoretically "bounce" into a white hole under specific conditions if quantum gravitational effects prevent singularity formation. This bounce could eject energy and matter at relativistic speeds. The white hole then turns back into a black hole.

Or, better yet, this vaccum energy created in a black hole, could be just what is needed to hold open a stable wormhole. 

The Cosmic Event Horizon is moving faster than light

The speed of light plus the expansion of the universe causes the light at the edge of the universe to be moving faster than the speed of light. It is always said that this does not break the laws of physics as the light itself is not fueling the expansion causing the acceleration, as it is space itself that is stretching. That said, matter is still now net moving faster than the speed of light from our point of view (from our Lorentz frame).  Jason and others suggests that Black Holes and their information moving out of our possibility of ever retrieving them has some significance. Leonard Susskind says that the “Cosmic Event Horizon is like looking at a black hole inside out… there is something wrong with it”.

Perhaps it is another source of exotic matter.

Is it possible that we live in a Black Hole or Similar Structure?

Although it may seem absurd, consider all the similarities to what we see, and what we would see living in a black hole.

If our universe were inside a spherically symmetric black hole, any observer anywhere in the Universe would perceive themselves as being in the center, which is how we see ourselves. One reason is the curvature of space-time, all paths inside a black hole eventually lead inward toward the singularity.

The Schwarzschild radius of a black hole that contained the mass of all the matter and energy in the observable Universe is almost exactly equal to the observed size of the visible Universe.

The CMB has several characteristics we would see if we were in a black hole, including how it looks the same, and has the same temperature in every direction. This is called the horizon problem.

As you sink past the horizon in a black hole, matter appears redshifted in every direction, increasingly so towards the horizon, resembling what we see in our universe, As you sink inward, matter that was moving past the horizon earlier would emit light increasingly redshifted. As you approach the singularity, light from external sources becomes progressively redshifted to the point that it shifts out of the visible spectrum and effectively disappears

The entropy of a black hole is proportional to the area of its event horizon, not its volume. Similarly, our universe’s observable entropy seems to be related to its surface area, raising questions about whether the universe operates under similar rules. (Entropy is measured in bits. Information = area. If one bit of information is added to a black hole (the energy of a photon), the area of the horizon of the black hole will increase by one square Plank unit (10-30 square meters)..)

Second Law of Thermodynamics: The universe is moving toward higher entropy over time, just as the inside of a black hole accumulates more and more entropy. This similarity has led some to speculate that the universe could be behaving like a giant black hole in thermodynamic terms.

There is also the amazing coincidence that we can see almost exactly to the edge of the Big Bang at this point in time (13 billion years).

“Pathria(1972) has shown, for a pressure-less closed Universe, that it is inside a black (or white) hole. We show now, that the Universe with a cosmic pressure obeying Einstein’s field equations, can be inside a white-hole.” Berman (2007).

Poploski (2010) said: “if a black hole can form from the gravitational collapse of matter through an event horizon in the future then the reverse process also possible. Such a process would describe an exploding white hole: matter emerging from an event horizon in the past, like the expanding Universe. Scenarios in which the Universe was born from the interior of an Einstein-Rosen black hole may avoid many of the problems of the standard Big-Bang cosmology and the black hole information-loss problem. Their "results suggest that observed astrophysical black holes may be Einstein-Rosen bridges, each with a new universe inside that formed simultaneously with the black hole. Accordingly, our own Universe may be the interior of a black hole existing inside another universe." 

Time Travel Energy feedback avoided

Suppose one side of a wormhole was the Big Bang (a Black Hole / White Hole) and on the other side of the BH/WH, in the far future, were entangled Black Holes. Perhaps as all matter was driven forward in time from former to the later, and it would take the age of the Universe before it reached the edge, perhaps Hawking's time travel energy feedback problem would be avoided. Instead it would merely be conserved, and recirculated.

If we were living in a black hole, or if the Universe exhibited its same properties on a larger scale, the edges of our universe could be tied to Einstein Bridges, as they were originally proposed for black holes. Such could connect the future back to the Big Bang, to which everything is entangled.

Big Bang Again

We can see 13,8 billion years into the past, and see what occurred there (almost to the Big Bang). What we can see in the past is red shifted (as it would be if we were in a black hole, looking up at the surface we are receding from as we approach the singularity). How far into the future can we see?

Conjecture: Perhaps in a universe similar to as suggested by the Michail Stoilov Kruskal-Penrose coordinates, we loop around, without realizing it. We are thus now able to see both ends of our universe, the WH and the BH. When we hit the inner horizon of the BH or its singularity, we may get scattered to bits, it least it would look that way to an outside observer. How long it takes for us to reach the singularity is unknown, we can’t see light from the future, Enjoy it while you can.

   A Possible History of the Universe.  

1)   Big Bang Singularity / White Hole ejects matter and other energy from region IV into region I of the Universe.

2)   Dark Big Bang / formation of black holes and star clusters

3)   Universe moves along Worldline through region I pushed by the flow of expansion and energy towards Region II.

4)   Matter hits the cosmic event horizon / wormhole at region II boundary (Inner Black Hole Event Horizon)

5)   Matter Travels back through region III, not to a daughter universe, but the same universe the BH/WH is entangled to.

6)   Matter emerges again at Region IV

1) Tiny compact galaxies are masters of disguise in the distant universe – searching for secrets behind the Little Red Dots. https://theconversation.com/tiny-compact-galaxies-are-masters-of-disguise-in-the-distant-universe-searching-for-the-secrets-behind-the-little-red-dots-237273

2) Unlocking the secrets of the first quasars: how they defy the laws of physics to grow, Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica. News Release 20-Nov-2024. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1065370

3) The NANOGrav 15 yr Data Set: Evidence for a Gravitational-wave Background Citation Gabriella Agazie et al 2023 ApJL 951 L8DOI 10.3847/2041-8213/acdac6 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/acdac6.

4) “Dark matter and gravitational waves from a dark big bang” by Katherine Freese and Martin Wolfgang Winkler, 20 April 2023, Physical Review D.
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.107.083522

5) “Dark sector tunneling field potentials for a dark big bang” by Richard Casey and Cosmin Ilie, 15 November 2024, Physical Review D.
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.110.103522

6) Why is Webb seeing black holes that shouldn't exist? December 2024 issue of BBC Sky at Night Magazine. https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/news/webb-impossible-black-holes-answer

7) Avishai Dekel, Nicholas C. Stone, Dhruba Dutta Chowdhury, Shmuel Gilbaum, Zhaozhou Li, Nir Mandelker, Frank C. van den Bosch (2024) Growth of Massive Black-Holes in FFB Galaxies at Cosmic Dawn; https://arxiv.org/abs/2409.18605

8) Juan, and Leonard Susskind. “Cool Horizons for Entangled Black Holes.” Fortschritte der Physik (Progress of Physics), vol. 61, no. 9, 2013, pp. 781–811. https://arxiv.org/abs/1306.0533

9) Einstein-Rosen “Bridge” Revisited and Lightlike Thin-Shell Wormholes, Michail Stoilov Department of Physics, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy. https://ar5iv.org/html/1611.04336v2

10) Physics Letters B Vol. 687, Nos. 2-3 (2010) pp. 110–113 cElsevier B. V. RADIAL MOTION INTO AN EINSTEIN-ROSEN BRIDGE Nikodem J. Poplawski Department of Physics, Indiana University, Swain Hall West, 727 East Third Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA∗

11) Universe Generation from Black Hole Interiors
Damien A. Easson and Robert H. Brandenberger
Department of Physics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Universe-generation-from-black-hole-interiors-Easson-Brandenberger/bf54c83e85429605b7862c737929535989ba6418

12) Generalized Einstein-Rosen bridge inside black holes V I Dokuchaev1, K E Prokopev1 1 Institute for Nuclear Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences 60th October Anniversary Prospect 7a, 117312 Moscow, Russia.  https://arxiv.org/html/2312.15870v3

13) Farrah, Duncan, et al. "Observational Evidence for Cosmological Coupling of Black Holes." The Astrophysical Journal Letters, vol. 944, no. 2, 2023, doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb704. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/acac2e

14) Croker, K. S., et al. "Cosmological Coupling and Black Hole Mass Growth." The Astrophysical Journal, vol. 944, no. 1, 2023, doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acac2e. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/acb704

15) Imperial College London. "Scientists Find First Evidence That Black Holes Could Be the Source of Dark Energy." Imperial News, 2023, www.imperial.ac.uk/news/243114/scientists-find-first-evidence-that-black/.

16) University of Michigan. "Evidence Mounts for Dark Energy from Black Holes." The Record, 2023, https://record.umich.edu/articles/evidence-mounts-for-dark-energy-from-black-holes/